Close back rounded vowel
| Close back rounded vowel | |
|---|---|
| u | |
| IPA number | 308 |
| Audio sample | |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | u |
| Unicode (hex) | U+0075 |
| X-SAMPA | u |
| Braille |  |
| IPA: Vowels | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Legend: unrounded • rounded |
The close back rounded vowel, or high back rounded vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨u⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is u.
In most languages, this rounded vowel is pronounced with protruded lips ('endolabial'). However, in a few cases the lips are compressed ('exolabial').
[u] alternates with labio-velar approximant [w] in certain languages, such as French, and in the diphthongs of some languages, [u̯] with the non-syllabic diacritic and [w] are used in different transcription systems to represent the same sound.
Close back protruded vowel
[edit]The close back protruded vowel is the most common variant of the close back rounded vowel. It is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨u⟩ (the convention used in this article). As there is no dedicated IPA diacritic for protrusion, the symbol for the close back rounded vowel with an old diacritic for labialization, ⟨ ̫⟩, can be used as an ad hoc symbol ⟨u̫⟩. Another possible transcription is ⟨uʷ⟩ or ⟨ɯʷ⟩ (a close back vowel modified by endolabialization), but that could be misread as a diphthong.
Features
[edit]- Its vowel height is close, also known as high, which means the tongue is positioned close to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
- Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
- Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed.
Occurrence
[edit]| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afrikaans | Standard[2] | boek | [bu̜k] | 'book' | Only weakly rounded.[3] See Afrikaans phonology |
| Arabic | Standard[4] | جنوب/ǧanuub | [d͡ʒaˈnuːb] | 'south' | See Arabic phonology |
| Armenian | Eastern[5] | դուռ/dur | [dur] | 'door' | |
| Bavarian | Amstetten dialect[6] | und | [und̥] | 'and' | Contrasts close [u], near-close [o̝], close-mid [o] and open-mid [ɔ] back rounded vowels in addition to the open central unrounded [ä].[6] |
| Bulgarian[7] | луд/lud | [ɫut̪] | 'crazy' | See Bulgarian phonology | |
| Catalan[8] | suc | [s̺uk] | 'juice' | See Catalan phonology | |
| Chinese | Mandarin[9][10] | 土 / tǔ | [tʰu˨˩˦] | 'earth' | See Standard Chinese phonology |
| Cantonese[11] | 夫 / fū | ⓘ | 'man' | See Cantonese phonology | |
| Shanghainese[12] | 瓜/ku | [ku˩] | 'melon' | Height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back compressed vowel.[12] | |
| Chuvash | урам | [ur'am] | 'street' | ||
| Danish | Standard[13][14] | du | [tu] | 'you' | See Danish phonology |
| Dutch | Standard[15][16] | voet | ⓘ | 'foot' | Somewhat fronted in Belgian Standard Dutch.[16] |
| English | Australian[17][18] | book | [buk] | 'book' | Corresponds to [ʊ] in other accents. See Australian English phonology |
| Cape Flats[19] | May be advanced to [ʉ], or lowered and unrounded to [ɤ].[19] See South African English phonology | ||||
| Cultivated South African[20] | boot | [bu̟ːt] | 'boot' | Typically more front than cardinal [u]. See White South African English phonology and American English phonology. | |
| General American[21] | |||||
| Geordie[22] | May be central [ʉː] instead. | ||||
| Irish[23] | Realized as central [ʉː] in Ulster. | ||||
| Some Multicultural London speakers[24] | More commonly front [yː]. | ||||
| Conservative Received Pronunciation[25] | Realized as central [ʉː] in modern RP. | ||||
| Welsh[26][27][28] | |||||
| Pakistani[29] | [buːʈ] | ||||
| Greater New York City[30] | [buːt][31] | ||||
| New Zealand[32][33] | treacle | [ˈtɹ̝̊iːku] | 'treacle' | Possible realization of the unstressed vowel /ɯ/, which is variable in rounding and ranges from central to (more often) back and close to close-mid.[32][33] Corresponds to /əl/ in other accents. See New Zealand English phonology | |
| Estonian[34] | sule | [ˈsule̞] | 'feather' (gen. sg.) | See Estonian phonology | |
| Finnish[35][36] | kukka | [ˈkukːɑ] | 'flower' | See Finnish phonology | |
| Faroese[37] | gulur | [ˈkuːlʊɹ] | 'yellow' | See Faroese phonology | |
| French[38][39] | où | ⓘ | 'where' | See French phonology | |
| Georgian[40] | გუდა/guda | [ɡudɑ] | 'leather bag' | ||
| German | Standard[41][42] | Fuß | ⓘ | 'foot' | See Standard German phonology |
| Many speakers[43] | Stunde | [ˈʃtundə] | 'hour' | The usual realization of /ʊ/ in Switzerland, Austria and partially also in Western and Southwestern Germany (Palatinate, Swabia).[43] See Standard German phonology | |
| Greek | Modern Standard[44][45] | που / pou | [pu] | 'where' | See Modern Greek phonology |
| Hungarian[46] | út | [uːt̪] | 'way' | See Hungarian phonology | |
| Icelandic[47][48] | þú | [θ̠u] | 'you' | See Icelandic phonology | |
| Indonesian[49] | Standard Indonesian | unta | [unta] | 'camel' | See Indonesian phonology |
| Italian[50] | tutto | [ˈt̪ut̪t̪o] | 'all', 'everything' | See Italian phonology | |
| Kaingang[51] | [ˈndukːi] | 'in the belly' | |||
| Kazakh | туған/tuğan | [t̪ʰuˈʁɑ̝̃n̪] | 'native' | Transcribed phonemically as ⟨ʊw⟩ | |
| Khmer | ភូមិ / phumĭ | [pʰuːm] | 'village' | See Khmer phonology | |
| Korean | 눈 / nun | [nuːn] | 'snow' | See Korean phonology | |
| Kurdish[52][53][54] | Kurmanji (Northern) | çû | [tʃʰuː] | 'wood' | See Kurdish phonology |
| Sorani (Central) | چوو/çû | ||||
| Palewani (Southern) | |||||
| Latin | Classical[55] | sus | [suːs] | 'pig' | |
| Limburgish[56][57] | sjoen | [ʃu̟n] | 'beautiful' | Back[57] or near-back,[56] depending on the dialect. The example word is from the Maastrichtian dialect. | |
| Lower Sorbian[58] | zub | [z̪up] | 'tooth' | ||
| Luxembourgish[59] | Luucht | [luːχt] | 'air' | See Luxembourgish phonology | |
| Malay | ubat | [u.bät] | 'medicine' | See Malay phonology | |
| Malayalam | ഉപ്പ് | upːɨ̆ | 'Salt' | See Malayalam phonology | |
| Mongolian[60] | үүр/üür | [uːɾɘ̆] | 'nest' | ||
| Mpade[61] | kusumu | [kusumu] | 'mouse' | ||
| Nogai | сув | [suː] | 'water' | ||
| Persian | دور/dur | [duɾ] | 'far' | See Persian phonology | |
| Polish[62] | buk | ⓘ | 'beech tree' | Also represented orthographically by ⟨ó⟩. See Polish phonology | |
| Portuguese[63] | tu | [ˈtu] | 'you' | See Portuguese phonology | |
| Romanian[64] | unu | [ˈun̪u] | 'one' | See Romanian phonology | |
| Russian[65] | узкий/uzkiy/uzkij | ⓘ | 'narrow' | See Russian phonology | |
| Scottish Gaelic | ùbhlan | [ˈuːl̪ˠən] | 'apples' | Normal realisation of /uː/ in most dialects. In Lewis and Wester Ross as an allophone in proximity to broad sonorants; /uː/ elsewhere fronted to [ʉː] or [yː].[66][67] | |
| Serbo-Croatian[68] | дуга / duga | [d̪ǔːɡä] | 'rainbow' | See Serbo-Croatian phonology | |
| Shiwiar[69] | [example needed] | ||||
| Spanish[70] | curable | [kuˈɾäβ̞le̞] | 'curable' | See Spanish phonology | |
| Sotho[71] | tumo | [tʼumɔ] | 'fame' | Contrasts close, near-close and close-mid back rounded vowels.[71] See Sotho phonology | |
| Swahili | ubongo | [ubongo] | 'brain' | ||
| Tagalog | utang | [ˈʔutɐŋ] | 'debt' | ||
| Thai | Standard[72] | ชลบุรี/chonburi | ⓘ | 'Chonburi' | |
| Turkish[73][74] | uzak | [uˈz̪äk] | 'far' | See Turkish phonology | |
| Udmurt[75] | урэтэ/urėtė | [urete] | 'to divide' | ||
| Ukrainian[76] | рух/rukh | [rux] | 'motion' | See Ukrainian phonology | |
| Upper Sorbian[58][77] | žuk | [ʒuk] | 'beetle' | ||
| Urdu | دُور/dur | [duɾ] | 'far' | See Urdu phonology | |
| Welsh | mwg | [muːɡ] | 'smoke' | See Welsh phonology | |
| West Frisian | jûn | [juːn] | 'evening, tonight' | See West Frisian phonology | |
| Yoruba[78] | itọju | [itɔju] | |||
| Zapotec | Tilquiapan[79] | gdu | [ɡdu] | 'all' | |
Close back compressed vowel
[edit]| Close back compressed vowel | |
|---|---|
| u͍ | |
| ɯᵝ | |
| Audio sample | |
Some languages, such as Japanese and Swedish, have a close back vowel that has a distinct type of rounding, called compressed or exolabial.[80] Only Shanghainese is known to contrast it with the more typical protruded (endolabial) close back vowel, but the height of both vowels varies from close to close-mid.[12]
There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨ɯ͡β̞⟩ (simultaneous [ɯ] and labial compression) or ⟨ɯᵝ⟩ ([ɯ] modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic ⟨ ͍⟩ may also be used with a rounded vowel letter ⟨u͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol, but 'spread' technically means unrounded.
Features
[edit]- Its vowel height is close, also known as high, which means the tongue is positioned close to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
- Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
- Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense and drawn together in such a way that the inner surfaces are not exposed.
Occurrence
[edit]| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chinese | Shanghainese[12] | 都/tub | [tɯᵝ˩] | 'capital' | Height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back protruded vowel.[12] |
| Japanese[81] | 空気 / kūki | ⓘ | 'air' | Near-back; may be realized as central [ɨᵝ] by younger speakers.[81] See Japanese phonology | |
| Lizu[82] | [Fmɯ̟ᵝ][clarification needed] | 'feather' | Near-back.[82] | ||
| Norwegian[83][84] | mot | [mɯᵝːt] | 'courage' | The example word is from Urban East Norwegian, in which the vowel can be diphthongized to [ɯᵝə̯].[85] See Norwegian phonology | |
| Swedish | Central Standard[86][87] | oro | [²ɯᵝːrɯᵝː] | 'unease' | Often realized as a sequence [ɯᵝβ̞] or [ɯᵝβ][86] (hear the word: ⓘ). See Swedish phonology |
See also
[edit]Citations
[edit]- ^ While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
- ^ Donaldson (1993), pp. 2, 5.
- ^ Donaldson (1993), p. 5.
- ^ Thelwall & Sa'Adeddin (1990), p. 38.
- ^ Dum-Tragut (2009), p. 13.
- ^ a b Traunmüller (1982), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:290)
- ^ Ternes & Vladimirova-Buhtz (1999), p. 56.
- ^ Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.
- ^ Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 110–111.
- ^ Duanmu (2007), pp. 35–36.
- ^ Zee (1999), pp. 59–60.
- ^ a b c d e Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329.
- ^ Grønnum (1998), p. 100.
- ^ Basbøll (2005), p. 46.
- ^ Gussenhoven (1992), p. 47.
- ^ a b Verhoeven (2005), p. 245.
- ^ Cox & Palethorpe (2007), p. 344.
- ^ Cox & Fletcher (2017), p. 65.
- ^ a b Finn (2004), p. 970.
- ^ Lass (2002), p. 116.
- ^ Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009).
- ^ Watt & Allen (2003), p. 268.
- ^ Raymond Hickey (2004). Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider (ed.). A Handbook of Varieties of English Volume 1: Phonology. De Gruyter. p. 91.
- ^ Cruttenden (2014), p. 91.
- ^ Roach (2004), p. 242.
- ^ Collins & Mees (1990), p. 95.
- ^ Connolly (1990), p. 125.
- ^ Tench (1990), p. 135.
- ^ Mahboob & Ahmar (2004), p. 1007.
- ^ Raymond Hickey (2004). Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider (ed.). A Handbook of Varieties of English Volume 1: Phonology. De Gruyter. p. 287.
- ^ Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. chpt. 17
- ^ a b "NZE Phonology" (PDF). Victoria University of Wellington. p. 3.
- ^ a b Bauer & Warren (2004), p. 585.
- ^ Asu & Teras (2009), p. 368.
- ^ Iivonen & Harnud (2005), pp. 60, 66.
- ^ Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008), p. 21.
- ^ Árnason (2011), pp. 68, 74.
- ^ Fougeron & Smith (1993), p. 73.
- ^ Collins & Mees (2013), p. 225.
- ^ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), pp. 261–262.
- ^ Hall (2003), pp. 87, 107.
- ^ Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 34.
- ^ a b Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
- ^ Arvaniti (2007), p. 28.
- ^ Trudgill (2009), p. 81.
- ^ Szende (1994), p. 92.
- ^ Árnason (2011), p. 60.
- ^ Einarsson (1945:10), cited in Gussmann (2011:73)
- ^ "Indonesian Alphabet and Pronunciation". mylanguages.org. Retrieved 2021-05-17.
- ^ Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004), p. 119.
- ^ Jolkesky (2009), pp. 676–677, 682.
- ^ Thackston (2006a), p. 1.
- ^ Khan & Lescot (1970), pp. 8–16.
- ^ Fattah describes the sound as being voyelle longue centrale arrondie (p. 116).
- ^ Wheelock's Latin (1956).
- ^ a b Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), p. 159.
- ^ a b Peters (2006), p. 119.
- ^ a b Stone (2002), p. 600.
- ^ Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.
- ^ Iivonen & Harnud (2005), pp. 62, 66–67.
- ^ Allison (2006).
- ^ Jassem (2003), p. 105.
- ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
- ^ Sarlin (2014), p. 18.
- ^ Jones & Ward (1969), p. 67.
- ^ "Aspiration". Scottish Gaelic Dialect Survey. Archived from the original on 2021-04-24. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
- ^ Oftedal (1956), p. 75–76.
- ^ Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.
- ^ Fast Mowitz (1975), p. 2.
- ^ Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 256.
- ^ a b Doke & Mofokeng (1974), p. ?.
- ^ Tingsabadh & Abramson (1993), p. 24.
- ^ Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 155.
- ^ Göksel & Kerslake (2005), p. 11.
- ^ Iivonen & Harnud (2005), pp. 64, 68.
- ^ Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
- ^ Šewc-Schuster (1984), p. 20.
- ^ Bamgboṣe (1966), p. 166.
- ^ Merrill (2008), p. 109.
- ^ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 295.
- ^ a b Okada (1999), p. 118.
- ^ a b Chirkova & Chen (2013), p. 78.
- ^ Vanvik (1979), pp. 13, 17.
- ^ While Vanvik (1979) does not describe the exact type of rounding of this vowel, some other sources (e.g. Haugen (1974:40) and Kristoffersen (2000:16)) state explicitly that it is compressed.
- ^ Vanvik (1979), p. 17.
- ^ a b Engstrand (1999), p. 140.
- ^ Rosenqvist (2007), p. 9.
References
[edit]- Allison, Sean (2006), Alphabet et orthographe de Kotoko de Makary (mpadɨ) (Makary Kotoko Orthography Statement), SIL
- Árnason, Kristján (2011), The Phonology of Icelandic and Faroese, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-922931-4
- Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art", Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1365, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv
- Asu, Eva Liina; Teras, Pire (2009), "Estonian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 39 (3): 367–372, doi:10.1017/s002510030999017x
- Bamgboṣe, Ayọ (1966), A Grammar of Yoruba, [West African Languages Survey / Institute of African Studies], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
- Basbøll, Hans (2005), The Phonology of Danish, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-203-97876-4
- Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul (2004), "New Zealand English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 580–602, ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5
- Carbonell, Joan F.; Llisterri, Joaquim (1992), "Catalan", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (1–2): 53–56, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004618, S2CID 249411809
- Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043
- Chirkova, Katia; Chen, Yiya (2013), "Lizu", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 75–86, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000242
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (1990), "The Phonetics of Cardiff English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 87–103, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2013) [First published 2003], Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students (3rd ed.), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-50650-2
- Connolly, John H. (1990), "Port Talbot English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 121–129, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0
- Cox, Felicity; Fletcher, Janet (2017) [First published 2012], Australian English Pronunciation and Transcription (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-316-63926-9
- Cox, Felicity; Palethorpe, Sallyanne (2007), "Australian English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (3): 341–350, doi:10.1017/S0025100307003192
- Cruttenden, Alan (2014), Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 9781444183092
- Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223, S2CID 249414876
- Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783929075083
- Doke, Clement Martyn; Mofokeng, S. Machabe (1974), Textbook of Southern Sotho Grammar (3rd ed.), Cape Town: Longman Southern Africa, ISBN 978-0-582-61700-1
- Donaldson, Bruce C. (1993), "1. Pronunciation", A Grammar of Afrikaans, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1–35, ISBN 9783110134261
- Duanmu, San (2007) [First published 2000], The Phonology of Standard Chinese (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-921578-2
- Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4
- Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company
- Einarsson, Stefán (1945), Icelandic. Grammar texts glossary., Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, ISBN 978-0801863578
- Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
- Fast Mowitz, Gerhard (1975), Sistema fonológico del idioma achual, Lima: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano
- Finn, Peter (2004), "Cape Flats English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 964–984, ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5
- Fougeron, Cecile; Smith, Caroline L (1993), "French", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 23 (2): 73–76, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004874, S2CID 249404451
- Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 67–74, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000278
- Göksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005), Turkish: a comprehensive grammar, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415114943
- Grønnum, Nina (1998), "Illustrations of the IPA: Danish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 28 (1 & 2): 99–105, doi:10.1017/s0025100300006290, S2CID 249412109
- Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), "Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (2): 45–47, doi:10.1017/S002510030000459X, S2CID 243772965
- Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2): 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526, S2CID 145782045
- Gussmann, Edmund (2011). "Getting your head around: the vowel system of Modern Icelandic" (PDF). Folia Scandinavica Posnaniensia. 12: 71–90. ISBN 978-83-232-2296-5.
- Hall, Christopher (2003) [First published 1992], Modern German pronunciation: An introduction for speakers of English (2nd ed.), Manchester: Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-6689-4
- Haugen, Einar (1974) [1965], Norwegian-English Dictionary, The University of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 978-0-299-03874-8
- Iivonen, Antti; Harnud, Huhe (2005), "Acoustical comparison of the monophthong systems in Finnish, Mongolian and Udmurt", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (1): 59–71, doi:10.1017/S002510030500191X, S2CID 145733117
- Jassem, Wiktor (2003), "Polish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 103–107, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001191
- Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2009), "Fonologia e prosódia do Kaingáng falado em Cacique Doble", Anais do SETA, 3, Campinas: 675–685
- Jones, Daniel; Ward, Dennis (1969), The Phonetics of Russian, Cambridge University Press
- Khan, Celadet Bedir; Lescot, Roger (1970), Grammaire Kurde (Dialecte kurmandji) (PDF), Paris: La librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient Adrien Maisonneuve, retrieved 28 October 2017
- Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5
- Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996), The Sounds of the World's Languages, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-19814-7
- Landau, Ernestina; Lončarića, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999), "Croatian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–69, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
- Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.), Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521791052
- Lee, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (2003), "Standard Chinese (Beijing)", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 109–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001208
- Mahboob, Ahmar; Ahmar, Nadra H. (2004), "Pakistani English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W. (ed.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1, Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1003–1015
- Mannell, R.; Cox, F.; Harrington, J. (2009), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology, Macquarie University
- Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373
- Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344
- Oftedal, Magne (1956), The Gaelic of Leurbost, Isle of Lewis (PDF), Norsk Tidskrift for Sprogvidenskap
- Okada, Hideo (1999), "Japanese", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–119, ISBN 978-0-52163751-0
- Peters, Jörg (2006), "The dialect of Hasselt", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (1): 117–124, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002428
- Roach, Peter (2004), "British English: Received Pronunciation", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 239–245, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001768
- Rogers, Derek; d'Arcangeli, Luciana (2004), "Italian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 117–121, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001628
- Rosenqvist, Håkan (2007), Uttalsboken: svenskt uttal i praktik och teori, Stockholm: Natur & Kultur, ISBN 978-91-27-40645-2
- Sarlin, Mika (2014) [First published 2013], "Sounds of Romanian and their spelling", Romanian Grammar (2nd ed.), Helsinki: Books on Demand GmbH, pp. 16–37, ISBN 978-952-286-898-5
- Šewc-Schuster, Hinc (1984), Gramatika hornjo-serbskeje rěče, Budyšin: Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina
- Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659
- Stone, Gerald (2002), "Sorbian (Upper and Lower)", in Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G. (eds.), The Slavonic Languages, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 593–685, ISBN 9780415280785
- Suomi, Kari; Toivanen, Juhani; Ylitalo, Riikka (2008), Finnish sound structure – Phonetics, phonology, phonotactics and prosody (PDF), Studia Humaniora Ouluensia 9, Oulu University Press, ISBN 978-951-42-8984-2
- Szende, Tamás (1994), "Hungarian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 24 (2): 91–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005090, S2CID 242632087
- Tench, Paul (1990), "The Pronunciation of English in Abercrave", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 130–141, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0
- Ternes, Elmer; Vladimirova-Buhtz, Tatjana (1999), "Bulgarian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 55–57, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
- Thackston, W.M. (2006a), —Sorani Kurdish— A Reference Grammar with Selected Readings (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2021, retrieved 29 October 2017
- Thelwall, Robin; Sa'Adeddin, M. Akram (1990), "Arabic", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 20 (2): 37–39, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266, S2CID 243640727
- Tingsabadh, M. R. Kalaya; Abramson, Arthur S. (1993), "Thai", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 23 (1): 24–28, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004746, S2CID 242001518
- Traunmüller, Hartmut (1982), "Vokalismus in der westniederösterreichischen Mundart.", Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 2: 289–333
- Trudgill, Peter (2009), "Greek Dialect Vowel Systems, Vowel Dispersion Theory, and Sociolinguistic Typology", Journal of Greek Linguistics, 9 (1): 80–97, doi:10.1163/156658409X12500896406041
- Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 978-82-990584-0-7
- Verhoeven, Jo (2005), "Belgian Standard Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 243–247, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002173
- Watt, Dominic; Allen, William (2003), "Tyneside English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 267–271, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001397
- Wheelock, Frederick M.; LaFleur, Richard A. (2011) [1956]. Wheelock's Latin (Seventh ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-199722-8.
- Zee, Eric (1999), "Chinese (Hong Kong Cantonese)", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 58–60, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
- Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0, archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-25, retrieved 2015-11-20